first reserve list； those who you may call on if the appointment goes wrong
for any reason； it is worth taking particular care with your reply。 Here you
can emphasize the strength of their application but that the background
of another candidate was closer to your needs。 You don’t have to go into
details as to specifically why a particular candidate got the job and they
did not。
Aside from exuding professionalism and being plain good manners；
the job…hunting world is big and deep and at some stage you and your
organization will be fishing there again。
MOTIVATION
As a subject for serious study motivation is a relatively new ‘science’。
Thomas Hobbes； a 17th…century English philosopher； suggested that human
nature could best be understood as self…interested cooperation。 He claimed
that motivation could be summarized as choices revolving around pain or
pleasure。 Sigmund Freud was equally frugal in suggesting only two basic
needs： the life and the death instinct。 These ideas were the first to seriously
challenge the time…honoured ‘carrot and stick’ method of motivation that
pervaded every aspect of organizational life； from armies at war to weavers
in Britain working through the Industrial Revolution。
The first hint； in the business world； that there might be more to
motivation than rewards and redundancy came with Harvard Business
School professor Elton Mayo’s renowned Hawthorne Studies。 These were
conducted between 1927 and 1932 at the Western Electric Hawthorne Works
in Chicago。 Starting out to see what effect illumination had on productivity；
Mayo moved on to see how fatigue and monotony fi。。ed into the equation
by varying rest breaks； temperature； humidity and work hours； even
providing a free meal at one point。 Working with a team of six women；
Mayo changed every parameter he could think of； including increasing and
Organizational Behaviour 141
decreasing working hours and rest breaks； finally he returned to the original
conditions。 Every change resulted in an improvement in productivity；
except when two 10…minute pauses morning and a。。ernoon were expanded
to six 5…minute pauses。 These frequent work pauses； they felt； upset their
work rhythm。
Mayo’s conclusion was that showing ‘someone upstairs cares’； engendering
a sense of ownership and responsibility were important
motivators that could be harnessed by management。 A。。er Mayo came
a flurry of theories on motivation。 William McDougall in his book The
Energies of Men （1932； published by Methuen） listed 18 basic needs that
he referred to as instincts （eg curiosity； sell…assertions； submission）。 H A
Murray； assistant director of the Harvard Psychological Clinic； catalogued
20 core psychological needs； including achievement； affiliation and power。
The motivation theories most studied and applied by business school
graduates are those espoused by Maslow （see Chapter 3） and these below。
Theory X and theory Y
Douglas McGregor； an American social psychologist who taught at two
top schools； Harvard and the Massachuse。。s Institute of Technology （MIT）；
developed these theories to try to explain the assumptions about human
behaviour that underlies management action。
Theory ‘X’ makes the following assumptions：
。 The average person has an inherent dislike of work and will avoid it
if possible。 So management needs to put emphasis on productivity；
incentive schemes and the idea of a ‘fair day’s work’。
。 Because of this dislike of work； most people must be coerced； controlled；
directed and threatened with punishment to get them to achieve the
pany’s goals。
。 People prefer to be directed； want to avoid responsibility； have li。。le
ambition and really want a secure life above all。
But； while Theory ‘X’ does explain some human behaviour； it does not
provide a framework for understanding behaviour in the best businesses。
McGregor； and others； have proposed an alternative。
Theory ‘Y’ has as its basis the belief that：
。 Physical or mental effort at work is as natural as either rest or play。
Under the right conditions； hard work can be source of great satisfaction。
Under the wrong conditions it can be a drudge； which will inspire li。。le
effort and less thought from those forced to participate。
。 Once mi。。ed to a goal； most people at work are capable of a high
degree of self…management。
142 The Thirty…Day MBA
。 Job satisfaction and personal recognition are the highest ‘rewards’ that
can be given； and will result in the greatest level of mitment to the
task in hand。
。 Under the right conditions； most people will accept responsibility and
even wele more of it。
。 Few people in business are being ‘used’ to anything like their capacity。
Neither are they contributing creatively towards solving problems。
A typical Theory…X boss is likely to keep away from their employees as
much as possible。 However small the business； for example； they may make
sure that they have an office to themselves； and its door is kept tightly shut。
Contact with others will be confined to giving instructions about work and
plaining about poor performance。 A Theory…Y approach will involve
collaborating over decisions rather than issuing orders； and sharing
feedback so that everyone can learn from both success and failures； rather
than just reprimanding when things go wrong。
Hygiene and motivation theory
Frederick Hertzberg； professor of psychology at Case Western Reserve
University in Cleveland； United States； discovered that distinctly separate
factors were the cause of job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction。 His research
revealed that five factors stood out as strong determinants of job
satisfaction。
Motivators
。 Achievement： People want to succeed； so if you can set goals that people
can reach and be。。er； they will be much more satisfied than if they are
constantly missing targets。
。 Recognition： Everyone likes their hard work to be acknowledged。 Not
everyone wants that recognition made in the same way； however。
。 Responsibility： People like the opportunity to take responsibility
for their own work and for the whole task。 This helps them grow as
individuals。
。 Advancement： Promotion or at any rate progress are key motivators。
In a small firm； providing career prospects for key staff can be a fundamental
reason for growth。
。 The a。。ractiveness of work itself （job interest）： There is no reason why a
job should be dull。 You need to make people’s jobs interesting and give
them a say in how their work is done。 That will encourage new ideas on
how things can be done be。。er。
When the reasons for dissatisfaction were analysed they were found to be
concerned with a different range of factors。
Organizational Behaviour 143
Hygiene factors
。 pany policy： Rules； formal and informal； such as start and finish
times； meal breaks； dress code。
。 Supervision： To what extent are employees allowed to get on with the
job； or do people have someone looking over their shoulders all day？
。 Administration： Do things work well； or is paperwork in a muddle and
supplies always e in late？
。 Salary： Are employees ge。。ing at least the going rate and benefits
parable with others？
。 Working conditions： Are people expected to work in substandard
conditions with poor equipment and li。。le job security？
。 Interpersonal relationships： Is the atmosphere in work good or are
people at daggers drawn？
Hertzberg called these causes of dissatisfaction ‘hygiene factors’。 He
reasoned that the lack of hygiene will cause disease； but the presence of
hygienic conditions will not； of itself； produce good health。 So the lack of
adequate ‘job hygiene’ will cause dissatisfaction but hygienic conditions
alone will not bring about job satisfaction； to do that you have to work on
the determinants of job satisfaction。
Other theories of motivation
There are a plethora of theories of how to motivate people at work and elsewhere。
（See the partial list below。） As the subject has matured； researchers
have segmented the market into ever…smaller sub…topics； for example
focusing on certain subgroups； difficult peop