ehistory。
Every Western schoolchild is dutifully taught that the Near East is 〃the cradle of civilization；〃 and that the first civilizations arose in Egypt and Mesopotamia； nourished by the Nile and the Tigris…Euphrates river basins。 From here civilization spread to Crete and Greece； and then to Rome； and eventually to the barbarians of northern Europe。
What these barbarians were doing while they waited for the arrival of civilization was not known； nor was the question often raised。 The emphasis lay on the process of dissemination； which the late Gordon Childe summarized as 〃the irradiation of European barbarism by Oriental civilization。〃 Modern scholars held this view； as did Roman and Greek scholars before them。 Geoffrey Bibby says： 〃The history of northern and eastern Europe is viewed from the West and South； with all the preconceptions of men who considered themselves civilized looking upon men whom they considered barbarians。〃
From this standpoint； the Scandinavians are obviously the farthest from the source of civilization； and logically the last to acquire it； and therefore they are properly regarded as the last of the barbarians； a nagging thorn in the side of those other European areas trying to absorb the wisdom and civilization of the East。
The trouble is that this traditional view of European prehistory has been largely destroyed in the last fifteen years。 The development of accurate carbon…dating techniques has made a mess of the old chronology； which supported the old views of diffusion。 It now appears indisputable that Europeans were erecting huge megalithic tombs before the Egyptians built the pyramids； Stonehenge is older than the civilization of Mycenaean Greece； metallurgy in Europe may well precede the development of metalworking skills in Greece and Troy。
The meaning of these discoveries has not yet been sorted out； but it is certainly now impossible to regard the prehistoric Europeans as savages idly awaiting the blessings of Eastern civilization。 On the contrary； the Europeans seem to have had organizational skills considerable enough to work massive stones； and they seem also to have had impressive astronomical knowledge to build Stonehenge； the first observatory in the world。
Thus； the European bias toward the civilized East must be called into question； and indeed the very concept of 〃European barbarism〃 requires a fresh look。 With this in mind； those barbaric remnants； the Vikings； take on a new significance； and we can reexamine what is known of the Scandinavians of the tenth century。
First we should recognize that 〃the Vikings were never a clearly unified group。 What the Europeans saw were scattered and individual parties of seafarers who came from a vast geographical area…Scandinavia is larger than Portugal； Spain； and France bined…and who sailed from their individual feudal states for the purpose of trade or piracy or both； the Vikings made little distinction。 But that is a tendency shared by many seafarers from the Greeks to the Elizabethans。
In fact； for a people who lacked civilization； who 〃didn't feel the need to look 。。。 beyond the next battle；〃 the Vikings demonstrate remarkably sustained and purposeful behavior。 As proof of widespread trading； Arabic coins appear in Scandinavia as early as A。D。 692。 During the next four hundred years； the Viking trader…pirates expanded as far west as Newfoundland； as far south as Sicily and Greece （where they left carvings on the lions of Delos）； and as far east as the Ural Mountains of Russia； where their traders linked up with caravans arriving from the silk route to China。 The Vikings were not empire builders； and it is popular to say that their influence across this vast area was impermanent。 Yet it was sufficiently permanent to lend placenames to many localities in England； while to Russia they gave the very name of the nation itself； from the Norse tribe Rus。 As for the more subtle influence of their pagan vigor； relentless energy； and system of values； the manuscript of Ibn Fadlan shows us how many typically Norse attitudes have been retained 。 to the present day。 Indeed； there is something strikingly familiar to the modern sensibility about the Viking way of life； and something profoundly appealing。
ABOUT THE AUTHOR
A word should be said about Ibn Fadlan； the man who speaks to us with such a distinctive voice despite the passage of more than a thousand years and the filter of transcribers and translators from a dozen linguistic and cultural traditions。
We know almost nothing of him personally。 Apparently he was educated and； from his exploits； he could not have been very old。 He states explicitly that he was a familiar of the Caliph； whom he did not particularly admire。 （In this he was not alone； for the Caliph al…Muqtadir was twice deposed and finally slain by one of his own officers。）
Of his society； we know more。 In the tenth century； Bagdad； the City of Peace； was the most civilized city on earth。 More than a million inhabitants lived within its famous circular walls。 Bagdad was the focus of intellectual and mercial excitement； within an environment of extraordinary grace； elegance； and splendor。 There were perfumed gardens； cool shady arbors； and the accumulated riches of a vast empire。
The Arabs of Bagdad were Muslim and fiercely dedicated to that religion。 But they were also exposed to peoples who looked； acted； and believed differently from them。 The Arabs were； in fact； the least provincial people in the world of that time； and this made them superb observers of foreign cultures。
Ibn Fadlan himself is clearly an intelligent and observant man。 He is interested in both the everyday details of life and the beliefs of the people he meets。 Much that he witnessed struck him as vulgar； obscene； and barbaric； but he wastes little time in indignation； once he expresses his disapproval； he goes right back to his unblinking observations。 And he reports what he sees with remarkably little condescension。
His manner of reporting may seem eccentric to Western sensibilities； he does not tell a story as we are accustomed to hearing one。 We tend to forget that our own sense of drama originates in an oral tradition…a live performance by a bard before an audience that must often have been restless and impatient； or else sleepy after a heavy meal。 Our oldest stories； the Iliad； Beowulf； the Song of Roland； were all intended to be sung by singers whose chief function and first obligation was entertainment。
But Ibn Fadlan was a writer； and his principal aim was not entertainment。 Nor was it to glorify some listening patron； or to reinforce the myths of the society in which he lived。 On the contrary； he was an ambassador delivering a report； his tone is that of a tax auditor； not a bard； an anthropologist； not a dramatist。 Indeed； he often slights the most exciting elements of his narrative rather than let them interfere with his clear and level…headed account。
At times this dispassion is so irritating we fail to recognize how extraordinary a spectator he really is。 For hundreds of years after Ibn Fadlan； the tradition among travelers was to write wildly speculative； fanciful chronicles of foreign marvels…talking animals； feathered men who flew； encounters with behemoths and unicorns。 As recently as two hundred years ago； otherwise sober Europeans were filling their journals with nonsense about African baboons that waged war with farmers； and so on。
Ibn Fadlan never speculates。 Every word rings true； and whenever he reports by hearsay； he is careful to say so。 He is equally careful to specify when he is an eyewitness： that is why he uses the phrase 〃I saw with my own eyes〃 over and over。
In the end； it is this quality of absolute truthfulness which makes his tale so horrifying。 For his encounter with the monsters of the mist； the 〃eaters of the dead；〃 is told with the same attention to detail； the same careful skepticism； that marks the other portions of the manuscript。
In any case； the reader may judge for himself。
THE DEPARTURE FROM THE CITY OF PEACE
PRAISE BE TO GOD； THE MERCIFUL； THE passionate； the Lord of the Two Worlds； and blessing and peace upon the Prince of Prophets； our Lord and M