what it was。 if this were so； then no invention on my part would be necessary。 I could merely reproduce the eyewitness narrative； and annotate it for the reader。
The concept of a preexisting manuscript bypassed the logical problems which had earlier impeded me； because a found manuscript would not be my creation…even though I would create it。 Of course such thinking is absurd； but it happens all the time。 Often actors cannot act without a prop； or a false moustache； or some other artifice to separate themselves from the character they are portraying。 I was engaged in a similar process。
What sort of narrative would be most desirable？ I concluded the most useful account would be written by an outsider…someone not part of the culture； who could report objectively on the events as they occurred。 But who would this outside observer have been？ Where would he have e from？
On reflection； I realized I already knew of such a person。 In the tenth century； an Arab named Ibn Fadlan had traveled north from Baghdad into what is now Russia； where he came in contact with the Vikings。 His manuscript； well…known to scholars； provides one of the earliest eyewitness accounts of Viking life and culture。49 As a college undergraduate； I had read portions of the manuscript。 Ibn Fadlan had a distinct voice and style。 He was imitable。 He was believable。 He was unexpected。 And after a thousand years； I felt that Ibn Fadlan would not mind being revived in a new role； as a witness to the events that led to the epic poem of Beowulf。
Although the full manuscript of Ibn Fadlan has been translated into Russian； German； French and many other languages； only portions had been translated into English。 I obtained the existing manuscript fragments and bined them； with only slight modifications； into the first three chapters of Eaters of the Dead。50 I then wrote the rest of the novel in the style of the manuscript to carry Ibn Fadlan on the rest of his now…fictional journey。 I also added mentary and some extremely pedantic footnotes。
I was aware that Ibn Fadlan's actual journey in A。D。 921 had probably occurred too late in history to serve as the basis for Beowulf； which many authorities believe was posed a hundred and fifty years earlier。 But the dating of the poem is uncertain； and at some point a novelist will insist on his right to take liberties with the facts。 And Eaters contains many overt anachronisms； particularly when Ibn Fadlan meets up with a group of remnant Neanderthals。 （One of the oddities of this book is that the intervening decades has seen a scholarly reevaluation of Neanderthal man； and the notion that there might have been a few still around a thousand years ago in a remote location does not seem quite so preposterous now as it did then。）
But certainly； the game that the book plays with its factual bases bees increasingly plex as it goes along； until the text finally seems quite difficult to evaluate。 I have a long…standing interest in verisimilitude； and in the cues which make us take something as real or understand it as fiction。 But I finally concluded that in Eaters of the Dead； I had played the game too hard。 While I was writing； I felt that I was drawing the line between fact and fiction clearly； for example； one cited translator； Per Fraus…Dolus； means in literal Latin 〃by trickery…deceit。〃 But within a few years； I could no longer be certain which passages were real； and which were made up； at one point I found myself in a research library trying to locate certain references in my bibliography； and finally concluding； after hours of frustrating effort； that however convincing they appeared； they must be fictitious。 I was furious to have wasted my time； but I had only myself to blame。
I mention this because the tendency to blur the boundaries of fact and fiction has bee widespread in modern society。 Fiction is now seamlessly inserted in everything from scholarly histories to television news。 Of course； television is understood to be venal； its transgressions shrugged off by most of us。 But the attitude of 〃post…modern〃 scholars represents a more fundamental challenge。 Some in academic life now argue seriously there is no difference between fact and fiction； that all ways of reading text are arbitrary and personal； and that therefore pure invention is as valid as hard research。 At best； this attitude evades traditional scholarly discipline； at worst； it is nasty and dangerous。51 But such academic views were not prevalent twenty years ago； when I sat down to write this novel in the guise of a scholarly monograph； and academic fashions may change again…particularly if scholars find themselves chasing down imaginary footnotes； as I have done。
Under the circumstances； I should perhaps say explicitly that the references in this afterword are genuine。 The rest of the novel； including its introduction； text； footnotes； and bibliography； should properly be viewed as fiction。
When Eaters of the Dead was first published； this playful version of Beowulf received a rather irritable reception from reviewers； as if I had desecrated a monument。 But Beowulf scholars all seem to enjoy it； and many have written to say so。
M。C。
DECEMBER 1992
NOTE： The unprintable Arabic script found in the footnotes of the original paper version has been rendered as 〃（。。。）〃 in this e…text version。 …Russell
1 Throughout the manuscript； Ibn Fadlan is inexact about the size and position of his party。 Whether this apparent carelessness reflects his assumption that the reader knows the position of the caravan； or whether it is a consequence of lost passages of the text； one cannot be sure。 Social conventions may also be a factor； for Ibn Fadlan never states that his party is greater than a few individuals； when in fact it probably numbered a hundred people or more； and twice as many horses and camels。 But Ibn Fadlan does not count…literally…slaves； servants； and lesser members of the caravan。
2 Farzan； an unabashed admirer of Ibn Fadlan； believes that this paragraph reveals 〃the sensibility of a modern anthropologist； recording not only the customs of a people； but the mechanisms which act to enforce those customs。 The economic meaning of killing a nomad leader's horses is the approximate equivalent of modern death…taxes； that is； it tends to retard the accumulation of inherited wealth in a family。 Although demanded by religion； this could not have been a popular practice； any more than it is during the present day。 Ibn Fadlan most astutely demonstrates the way it is imposed upon the reluctant。〃
3 Actually； Ibn Fadlan's word for them here was 〃Rus；〃 the name of this particular tribe of Northmen。 In the text； he sometimes calls the Scandinavians by their particular tribal name； and sometimes he calls them 〃Varangians〃 as a generic term。 Historians now reserve the term Varangian for the Scandinavian mercenaries employed by the Byzantine Empire。 To avoid confusion； in this translation the terms 〃Northmen〃 and 〃Norsemen〃 are everywhere employed。
4 Arabs have always been uneasy about translating the Koran。 The earliest sheiks held that the holy book could not be translated； an injunction apparently based on religious considerations。 But everyone who has attempted a translation agrees for the most secular reasons： Arabic is by nature a succinct language； and the Koran is posed as poetry and therefore even more concentrated。 The difficulties of conveying literal meaning…to say nothing of the grace and elegance of the original Arabic…have led translators to preface their work with prolonged and abject apologies。
At the same time； Islam is an active； expansive way of thought； and the tenth century was one of its peak periods of dissemination。 This expansion inevitably necessitated translations for the use of new converts； and translations were made； but never happily from the standpoint of the Arabs。
5 This alone was startling to an Arab observer from a warm climate。 Muslim practice called for quick burial； often the same day as the death； after a short ceremony of ritual washing and prayer。
6 Or； possibly； 〃crazed。〃 The Latin manuscripts read cerritus； but the Arabic of Yakut says （。。。）； 〃dazed〃 or 〃dazzled。〃
7 Interestingly； in both Arabic and L